China has introduced a new ethnic unity law that rights groups and some foreign officials say could increase pressure toward assimilation of ethnic minorities.
The country officially recognises 55 ethnic minority groups, which together make up about 8.9 percent of the population of mainland China.
Beijing has said that its new ethnic unity law, which came into force on Wednesday, may also apply to individuals outside China’s borders. This has raised concerns among rights groups, which warn it could be used to pressure or target critics of China living abroad.
The Chinese government has rejected these concerns, saying Western media outlets have “misinterpreted” the overseas provisions of the law. It says the aim is to allow China to counter separatist movements outside the country.
The law has drawn attention internationally amid wider debates about how Beijing manages ethnic minority issues and political dissent.
What is China’s ethnic unity law?
China passed the law on March 12 with the stated goal of promoting a “shared” national identity among the country’s 56 ethnic groups, including the Han majority and 55 recognised minority groups.
The largest minority communities include the Uighurs, estimated at around 11 million people, and Tibetans, about 7 million. Tibet and Xinjiang are the only two regions in China where ethnic minority groups form the majority of the local population.
The law, approved by China’s ceremonial legislature, is intended to strengthen “a stronger sense of community among all ethnic groups in the Chinese nation,” according to Lou Qinjian, a delegate to the National People’s Congress who introduced the proposal.
The law calls on all government bodies and private organisations—including local governments and state-linked groups such as the All-China Women’s Federation—to promote ethnic unity.
However, critics argue that China has previously used similarly broad or neutral-sounding laws and policies to justify tighter control over ethnic identity and expression, particularly in regions such as Tibet and Xinjiang, where Tibetan and Uighur communities are concentrated.
The law states that “the people of each ethnic group, all organisations and groups of the country, armed forces, every Party and social organisation, every company” must build a shared consciousness of the Chinese nation in line with the constitution and legal requirements.
Under Article 15, Mandarin Chinese is required to be taught to all children before kindergarten and throughout compulsory education up to the end of high school. While Mandarin is already widely used as the main language of instruction in regions such as Inner Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang, the law reinforces its role nationwide and limits the use of minority languages as the primary medium of instruction.
In previous years, ethnic minority regions had greater flexibility in using local languages in schools, though this has been gradually reduced.
China’s constitution states that each ethnic group has the right to use and develop its own language and exercise a degree of self-rule, and the Law on Regional Ethnic Autonomy also provides for limited regional autonomy, including certain economic and administrative flexibilities for minority areas.
Why is the law being criticised for its impact on minorities?
China has long faced criticism from international organisations, human rights groups, and Western governments over its treatment of ethnic minorities.
In 2018, the United Nations said that at least one million Uighurs and other predominantly Muslim Turkic minorities were being held in a network of detention facilities. China rejected these claims, saying the facilities are vocational training centres aimed at teaching Mandarin and helping prevent “extremism” and “terrorism”.
In Tibet, the Dalai Lama—the region’s most prominent spiritual leader—has lived in exile in India for more than 60 years. China has repeatedly described him as a “separatist,” despite changes in relations over time.
Rights groups now warn that the new ethnic unity law could further restrict the cultural and social rights of ethnic minorities in China.
Sarah Brooks, deputy regional director of Amnesty International, said Chinese authorities have legal human rights obligations to protect minority communities and their cultures, but argued that the new law moves in the opposite direction.
She said the legislation prioritises a single state-defined national identity and pressures ethnic groups such as Uighurs, Tibetans and Mongolians to adopt a uniform identity shaped around Han Chinese culture.
Brooks also warned that activities already considered sensitive in China—such as promoting minority languages, documenting alleged human rights abuses, or campaigning for detainees linked to cultural or religious expression—could face even greater risk of criminalisation under the new framework.
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